Functionalist Theory Essay Example for Free

Functionalist Theory Essay The functionalist theory is one that views the society as one that is social system made up of interrelated components. Each of these components is important and works together towards the achievement of a whole complete society. A common analogy supporting the functionalist theory is the human body which has several body organs which usually work together with problems in one organ affecting the rest of the body. The major components within a society are customs, traditions, norms and institutions such as families. It is agreed among major functionalists that social institutions make the essential components of society with rules and regulations being needed so as to organize the society in an effective manner. Functionalism within the discipline of anthropology developed in the early 20th century as a reaction to the extremes of the diffusionist and evolutionary theories developed within the 19th century (Goldschmidt 1996). The change was as a result of a change in focus from the more speculative diachronic examination of cultural traits and social customs as survivals to a more synchronic examination of the various social institutions existing within functioning societies. Functionalists were attempting to increase socio-cultural examination beyond the limits of the evolutionary notion of social history which viewed cultural traits and social customs as the residual pieces of cultural history. The theory has anthropological roots based on the thoughts and works of Bronislaw Malinowski, who argued that social institutions existed so as to meet the physiological needs of individuals within a society. As such, social stability was achieved by ensuring the needs of the individuals comprising the society were met with adequate knowledge of the feelings and motives of these individuals forming a basis for understanding how the society functioned. He viewed culture as the main element that ensured the needs of the members of a society were met. It is also based on the works of Alfred Radcliffe-Brown who argued that the basic divisions of anthropology were the various processes of human life within a social structure interlinked through interactions. Stability within society was therefore achieved through social practices that would repeat themselves and develop overtime supporting each other. As such, he theorized functional analysis as the attempt to understand social stability by observing how these social practices would fit together. The functionalist theory is also based on the thoughts and works of major social positivists and was first theorized by Auguste Comte following the French revolution which resulted in social malaise. This led him to see the need for social cohesion within society. This was followed by the works of Emile Durkheim that advanced the theory of organic solidarity, whose major emphasis was on the fundamental function that ethical consensus played in ensuring social order as well as building an equilibrium within society. His main concern was how certain societies were able to maintain stability and be able to survive hence proposed that such societies are usually have subdivisions with the separate divisions being held mutually by common values and symbols. In addition, Talcott Parsons argued that a social system is usually one that is comprised of the actions of individuals who are faced with a variety of choices which in turn are influenced by several social and physical factors. He posited a social system that had four types of action systems which included culture, personality, organismic, and society, with each these four systems having to satisfy four functional needs which were latency, adaptation, integration, and goal attainment. His analysis involved studying the processes and trade offs of social structures within and between the four system levels (Turner and Maryanski 1991). Central principles in the functionalist theory Functionalist analysis studies the social importance of phenomena. It seeks to examine the various functions that these phenomena serve within a society in order to preserve the whole (Jarvie, 1973). According to Malinowski, the major concepts included: †¢ Understanding behavior based on an individual’s motivation in addition to both rational and irrational behavior; †¢ Recognizing the interrelationship of the various items which comprised a culture forming a system; and †¢ Recognizing a particular item and identifying its function within the contemporary operation of a culture. Radcliffe-Brown based his works on those of Emile Durkheim who had posited that social phenomena comprised a domain of reality that was independent of any biological or psychological facts. As such, social phenomena have to be explained in terms of the other social phenomena occurring within the domain (Broce, 1973). Radcliffe-Brown therefore studied the circumstances under which the various social structures are upheld within society. He developed an analogy between organic life and social life in order to be able to explain the idea of function hence placing emphasis on the contribution of phenomena to preserving social order. Functional analysis has given value to social institutions. This is because it considers them as integrated and active components of a social system and not as simple customs (Langness, 1987). Functionalism has also contributed to the current idea that traditional usages have been formed by the necessity that human beings have to live collectively in harmony. Its emphasis on exhaustive fieldwork has offered an in-depth study of human societies. In addition, the study of functional interrelationship between institutions and customs has provided a framework for collecting information on how societies function. Major criticisms There have been several criticisms raised against the functionalist theory leading to its decline. The functionalist theory has been criticized for its major ignorance towards historical process in addition to its presumption that societies exists in an equilibrium state (Goldschmidt, 1996). Interactionist theorists have criticized this theory due to its failure to conceptualize sufficiently the multifaceted nature of individual actors and the methods of interaction within societies. Marxist theorists have criticized functionalism due to its conservativism and the fixed nature of examination used that underlined the role of social phenomena in the preservation of the status-quo within society (Holmwood, 2005). Constructionist theorists have criticized functionalism due to the use of classificatory theories that characterized phenomena based on their functions (Turner and Maryanski, 1991). Responses to Critiques Comparative functionalism, developed by Walter Goldschmidt, attempts to respond to the difficulties that have developed as a result of Malinowskis argument that a culture can be comprehended on its own with institutions been seen as products of the various cultures within which they were created. Comparative functionalism seeks to understand institutional differences between cultures by examining phenomena within the different cultures and the problems experienced in these societies. This approach is worthwhile since it is aware of the universality of the functions to which social institutions are a response to. Problems are usually consistent from one culture to another culture, but the institutional solutions that will be needed will vary from one culture to another (Holmwood, 2005). As such, one begins with analyzing the problem so as to find out how institutional procedures provide solutions. Neo-functionalism is an attempt to revise British structural-functionalism. Some neo-functionalists seek to analyze phenomena based on particular functional requisites. Other neo-functionalists focus on matters of social integration, social evolution, and social differentiation. Others examine how the various cultural processes such as rituals, values, and ideologies integrate with social structures. However, neo-functionalism places little emphasis on how phenomena are able to meet system needs (Turner and Maryanski, 1991). This approach is worthwhile since it provides a bridge between human behavior, which frequently involves cooperation, and natural selection, where individual interaction involves competition more than cooperation. References Broce, G. (1973). History of Anthropology. Minneapolis: Burgess Publishing Company. Goldschmidt, W. (1996). Functionalism. In Encyclopedia of Cultural Anthropology, Vol 2. David Levinson and Melvin Ember, eds. New York: Henry Holt and Company. Holmwood, J. (2005). Functionalism and its Critics, in Harrington, A. Modern Social Theory: An Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Jarvie, I. C. (1973). Functionalism. Minneapolis: Burgess Publishing Company. Kuper, A. (1996). Anthropology and Anthropologists. London: Routledge. Langness, L. (1987). The Study of Culture. Novato, California: Chandler Sharp Publishers, Inc. Turner, J. H. Maryanski, A. (1991). Functionalism. In Borgatta, E. F, Encyclopedia of Sociology, Vol 2. New York: MacMillan Publishing Company.

Germany Competitiveness The Porters Diamond Context Economics Essay

Germany Competitiveness The Porters Diamond Context Economics Essay Context for firm strategy and rivalry: Germany can be considered center of Europe both for its geographic and political position. This gives to Germany the possibility to lead the European market and to manage a relevant diversification of its internal economy; it means to create a hugely competitive business environment for German companies. The efficiency rate in German large and small companies is higher than international standards due to the great amount of off shoring and outsourcing practices so that it makes this economy the most competitive in Europe. Throughout last years, German small and medium enterprisers performed better than the large ones, overtaking even the US competitive standards, as shown by the Work Competitiveness Yearbook 2010. Those small enterprisers are the so called hidden champions because they are little known to the public even if they are world market leaders. In contrast to the practice of the other European countries to develop economies related on large state-owned industrial champions, Germany could be considered such as a private driven economy in which the small and medium enterprises are playing the most important role in boosting investments and employment rate. They also make the success of German export with the 80% of the production sold abroad; the Machinery and Equipment Cluster, for instance, holds almost 20% of world export market share. These companies successfully compete on innovation processes and on improving efficiency, getting a great benefit from both the excellent European and German intellectual property protection. According to the World Economic Forum (WEF), Germany represents one of the worlds best location in planning and operating security and it is one of the leading Nations in the field of propriety rights protection and contracts protection. This excellence let Germany to grant over 12,500 patents at the EU Patent Office only in 2010 and to be the European leader in triadic patents, registered in the three most important worlds patent offices: the European Patent Office, the United States Patent and Trademark Office, and the Japan Patent Office. The German legal system itself can be considered one of the most efficient and independent of the entire world. Moreover, the social and political stability of the country and the Germans culture based on the total respect of the laws principles make this country a greatly attractive places for corporate investments projects even for foreign firms in almost all the industries. In addition to the high quality of the legal organization, Germany has developed a very internationally competitive taxation system: in 2008 an ambitious reform was made in order to decrease the corporate tax burden by around the 25% and the corporate income tax down to 15% on all corporate taxable earnings. Eventually, Germany has developed a unique corporate governance system that makes possible a virtuous match between workers and employers in order to avoid time-consuming and value-destroying disputes: it becomes a key success factor to rise up during recession periods. As a matter of fact, core decisions are taken through Job Alliances that enable flex-security on job market in order to keep companies competitive while maintaining job positions. Great importance is given to the role of federal government which gives big support to this system promoting grants and self-regulation policies. Factor conditions: Germany benefits from a huge number of natural resources such as building materials, natural gas, wood and other strategic natural elements. Its wide land gives to the country a lot of space that can be exploited focusing on clean energy production. Moreover, the climate represents an important factor in producing energy with the key role played by the wind that constantly flows in the northern part of the country. The prevalence of lowlands in northern regions makes Germans able to take the most possible advantage of the wind, becoming part of the Northern Power Cluster for wind energy production. The pretty big population of Germany can be considered little diversified in culture and tradition with a big prevalence of German native speakers over the other cultures ( almost 91% of the entire population, as the CIA World Factbook points out ). The German position on human capital point of view is strongly influenced by the unique education system that represent a best practice in all over the world. This is focused on the importance given to the professional training in order to provide people, since earlier age, with a set of skills useful to join the job market. Parallel to the professional-oriented approach there is also a very good and selective university system for the large number of young people that decide to longer dedicate themselves to study activities: mechanical engineering, with more than 400,000 matriculate students, ranks second in the top 20 of the most in-demand study programs and provides the highest skilled workers for the main sectors of the country such as automotive, machinery, electrical and electronic. This dual track allows enterprises to reduce dramatically the labor costs in term of training programs and young people to enter in the job market already with a high productivity rate. Germany can be considered extremely attractive as a location for investments due to high productivity rates and stable wages. In addition, in recent years the overall labor cost has been the lowest in Europe with an annual increase rate of less than 2%; this job market context contributes to enhance strong competitive business relations. Unskilled workers represent almost the 20% on the total workforce; this evidence reflects the attention paid to education and emphasizes the companies ability to attract skilled workforce from other countries. Germany Important concerns from governments point of view remain the unemployment rate (at the 6% in 2011, as said in CIA World Factbook) and the pretty low participation in work force, compared with countries such as US, UK or Japan. In addition, Germany is one of the worlds leaders in RD investments, both in terms of budget and percentage of GDP, reaching the 2.8% and overlapping the EU average of 2.1%. The high regard to investments is coming both from the public and the private sector and the great number of PPPs (Private and Public Partnership) is playing a key role in German competitiveness and in planned development. The high level of RD investments impacts positively on the dynamicity of German economy: over 27% of the manufacturing turnover is generated from innovative products. Eventually, Germany derives its economic power also from its important and well organized grid of transportation infrastructures: the 2009-2010 Global Competitiveness Report of the WEF ranked Germany at the first position in terms of infrastructures. The rail system, which connects the country with all the neighbors by high speed rail, is gaining more efficiency thanks to the open access to the market given to privates that make the sector much more competitive than the state monopoly. This makes Germany the 6th position for railways infrastructure in comparison with the other states of the world (CIA World Factbook ). Water ways and harbors are extremely well developed too and the airports system is ranked 13th in the CIAs comparison between countries as stated in the CIA World Factbook. By the way, governments biggest challenge is to continue to increase the already large flow of foreign direct investments and to improve, as much as possible, the venture capital system by the adoption of specific policies. Today, German legal framework makes no distinction between national and foreign investments promoting principles such as freedom in trade and payments and the reduction of barriers. Moreover, there are special treatments and opportunities for young entrepreneurs and start-ups: on one hand, special conferences and events like the German Equity Forum, and, on the other one, proposals of venture capital partnerships through development banks and the German Private Equity and Venture Capital Association. Further financial assistance is given at regional, national and European level through a wide number of instruments: cash incentives, interest reduced loans, public guarantees, labor-related incentives and RD grants. Demand conditions: Domestic demand is therefore becoming a more significant driver of Germanys economic expansion (from   CIA World Factbook). Due to the Euro financial crisis the export rate to EU cover the loss in term of exports. In this perspective, a key role is played by the government in boosting investments and supporting internal demand: there are available some governments loans made up for enterprises in order to enable them to borrow new capital at a lower interest rates and, in turn, be able to offer lower prices to the consumers market. A great influence on the demand is played by the high level of quality and environmental standards that characterize German regulation. Germany has a virtuous regulation history, starting with the Deutsches Institut fà ¼r Normung (DIN) during the 20s until today: a huge number of innovations has been introduced in this field such as self-regulation processes related to the new public governance system. German standards and their regulation are also much influenced by EU, which is trying to homogenize the regulation of the Common Market and to stimulate cleaner manufacture and energy production (EU 20/20/20 Program): this affects Germans big industrial sectors such as machinery, chemical and power clusters. This context originates a more complex supply and demand structure which express the need to assess the high level of constraints due to the global environmental challenges. Related and supporting industries: the important number of local suppliers are strongly supported by the efficient system of German scientific infrastructures set up both at the federal and local level . Germany has various types of research locations such as universities, laboratories, non-university institutes, companies and Federal as well as Là ¤nder institutions. Moreover, the German Federation of Industrial Research Associations (AiF) is a great example of how German companies themselves cooperate to research and innovation activity contributing directly to the country competitiveness. The AIF mostly contributes to the technology transfer process and research activity in the growing market of renewable energies such as solar and wind power. Germany is home to several research infrastructures with global significance in physics, earth science, climate research or the humanities. Examples of research infrastructures are: Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron (DESY) and the German Cli mate Computing Centre (DKRZ). In addition, Germany has a greatly developed Machinery and Equipment industry which provides the supply of power transmission engineering, material and air-handling technology and machine tools. This is the most innovative sector within the country and heavily influence German economy supporting all the other strategic sectors such as chemical, electronic, automotive and renewable energy, providing the sub-components needed for production processes. Da inserire nel diamante sul cluster: GREEN ECONOMY, INVESTMENTSà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦(clean power) Germany is the world leader in green technologies Æ’Â   leader in sustainable industries (wind energy, photovoltaic, bioenergy industry, Electricity (demand, import, exports, quanto produce il solare, il vento..) WIND ENERGY: p.6 PORTERS FORCES (Porters book) Role of Government: Public demand, self-regulation, promoting networks and clusters. Public RD support and PPP P.11 and others (ig. Website) Role of Federal Government in green energy P.5

The Role Guilt Plays in Franz Kafkas The Trial Essay -- European Lite

What is guilt? Is Josef K. guilty? What is he guilty of? All of these questions come to mind when you read The Trial by Franz Kafka, but they are not easily answered. The question of guilt is a theme that runs through the entire novel, and it serves to enlighten the reader as to what, I believe, Kafka is trying to say. So what is Kafka trying to say? If one looks at the opening sentence, in the light of the rest of the novel, I believe that it helps to clue us into Kafka's message. The fact that K. believes he has not done "anything truly wrong" (3) harkens back to the question of guilt. So because K. feels he is not fully guilty of anything, why is he hounded by the law? This is where the main theme of the book comes into play in my opinion. Kafka wants us to recognize, with the help of the opening sentence, that K. has done something wrong: he has lived an unexamined life dominated by routine, normalcy, and other people. This is what K. is guilty of. Is living an unexamined life "truly wrong?" I think that Kafka is arguing that it is wrong because by leading that type of life one is merely walking through life blind and not reaching our full potential. The first inkling of the fact that K. lives his life with blinders on, focused merely on the day to day, is his lack of recognition about a number of things. He does not know if he might have committed some minor infraction for which he is now being arrested. He does not realize that the guards are men that work at the bank with him. Later on his way to the court for the first time he makes the realization that he noticed something he normally would not have. All these things point to the fact that K. just goes about his business and day to day affairs with out care for his su... ...comes quite evident. Kafka is calling for all of humanity to stand up and take control of their own lives. Through self-examination, Kafka believes, that we can come to terms with some personal truth that gives this life meaning. For years people have looked to worldly and spiritual vehicles to find meaning, Kafka is urging that we instead turn inside to within and find something in our own humanity that gives this life meaning. Much like Goethe, Kafka believes our free will is what makes us human, and the exercise of free will is what makes or lives truly meaningful. So, do not rely on the whims of the governing or even the church; make your own decisions. Kafka urges to decide every day how you are going to live your life and then do it because you never know when the Day of Judgment may come. Works Cited Kafka, Franz. The Trial. New York: Schocken Books, 1998.

20,000 Leagues Under the Sea :: essays research papers

20,000 Leagues Under the Sea Jules Verne was born in France in 1828 and always had a love for the sea. He once tried to be a sea captain on a boat but things did not work out. Jules Verne has written many very famous books such as Journey To the Center of the Earth, Five Weeks in a balloon and Around the World in Eighty Days. I have written a review on one of his most famous books 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea. This book combines adventure, suspense and mystery throwing in a few pieces of information about life under the sea. The book begins with some great suspense, it begins with a boat chasing a giant monster that has destroyed some huge unsinkable ships. Every time they get close to this monster a giant stream of water shoots hundreds of feet into the air, causing the boat to back off. Once in a while the monster will disappear from sight for hours. While reading this part of the book the reader feels like he is on the boat chasing the monster also. A lot of times the boat gets close enough to the monster to catch it and thoughts of what you think the monster could be run through your head like crazy. When they finally make an attempt to capture it, it disappears beneath the depths of the ocean. One of the most suspenseful and mysterious parts of the book was when the characters were thrown into a big room inside the submarine that seemed to have no doors. At this point in the book the characters have no idea what was going on, neither does the reader. The only thing that happens during the time in this room is a man comes in and gives them some food, minutes later they all fell asleep. Why where they put to sleep, where is this room that seems to have no doors? This is just one of the hundreds of questions going through your head during these couple chapters of the book. When they wake up all the lights in the room are off and the submarine is shaking.

Evaluating the Impact of Tourism in England Essay -- UK, Britain

Tourist Count During our visit to Ashridge Estate, we carried a tourist count on two honey pot locations known as Bridgewater Monument and Ivinghoe Beacon. 1 out of the 4 groups that visited Ashridge carried out the tourist count as we did not want to hassle the tourists. A member from the group stood at an area in both locations and took a count of the amount of teenagers, adults, OAP’s, family groups and children there were. The information was then tallied onto a table. From this, we will compare the results collected to previous years (2004-2005). The comparison will be useful as it will allow us to analyse the information to see whether there is a correlation between the number of tourism and the hypothesis. If the number of tourists has decreased, then good; less damage done to the wildlife and environment. However, if the number of tourists increased, it may also suggest that the negative impacts have likewise increased. Some of the negative impacts may be footpath erosion; more tourists use the footpath resulting in more damage, Littering; animals may eat the litter which could harm them and also the air/noise pollution created via tourist transportation; affects the air quality and environment of the local wildlife. As we took the tourist count, we categorized the tourists into age groups. The reason for this was to see which age group was more likely to have a negative impact in Ashridge. Children and teenagers for example tend to be more energetic in comparison to OAP’s, doing more active activities that could harm the local wildlife and environment e.g. football; sports. Whilst OAP’s are more passive and less energetic doing activities that are less likely to harm the wildlife and environment e.g. bird watching. So... ...to see whether they were affected by tourism. On the sketch we took detailed annotations to help us visualize the problems we saw such as footpath erosion, debris materials scattered, deep rutted soil and other negative impacts. From this we could see the difference in both footpaths ((un)managed) to see which one was more affected by tourism. The problem with the field sketches was that whilst we were drawing, it was really windy which subsequently distracted us, so there may have been some mistakes. Also, some of the pupils from the groups found it difficult to draw what they saw, so the sketches may also not have been accurate and reliable. We could improve our drawings by taking a camera to capture accurate photos that will give us reliable results. From the pictures we would be able to recall the features of the footpaths we saw in order to help our fieldwork.

Consider Some Key Theories and Concepts of Learning and Assessment Essay

In this assignment I will explore the concept of learning and application of some learning theories within the in the vocational further education sector. I will explore the application of theories to health and social vocational topics and how this assists in developing key attributes for learners on these programmes. I will identify assessment methods and provide a critique of the validity of these in different educational programmes. Definitions of learning vary drastically. This is primarily due to the differing conceptions of what learning actually is. Saljo (1979) identified five categories of learning. It is suggested that the five categories: â€Å"†¦increase in knowledge; memorising information; Acquiring facts, skills, and methods; making sense or abstracting meaning; interpreting and understanding reality in a different way† (Saljo, 1979), conceptualise learning as process. There has been extensive debate regarding the learner’s awareness of events whilst undergoing this process. Rogers (Weilbel, 2011) identified two categories of learning: Acquisition and formalised. Acquisition learning is activity or task based learning linked to a continuous, unconscious learning process that takes place throughout life, in education and personal experiences. As it is thought of as an unconscious process, Rogers approach emphasises the lack of learner awareness during learning. Formalised learning is generally facilitated by an education professional where the learner is actively conscious of learning taking place (Colley et al, 2003). Whilst many professionals agree there are differing types of learning, the more commonly referred to dimensions of learning are often categorised into five dimensions rather than the two categories identified by Rogers. The behaviourist approach argues that behaviour is a result of environmental stimulus and the experience following the behaviour of positive or negative consequence will determine responses to the same environmental stimulus in the future. Reinforcement of positive consequences by positive praise or feedback can accelerate learning by conditioning the learners in the pattern of behaviour response to environmental stimulus (Minton, 2005). Behaviourist view learning as a step by step process and this combined with sequential praise will enable learners to associate a positive experience with learning. These behaviourist concepts have a heavy influence over the whole education system and are embedded into regulatory guidelines however lend themselves well to vocational, competency based qualifications such as the BTEC given the modular nature of the programme. The modular layout enables regular opportunity for the stimuli: behaviour response relationship to be enforced through positive achievement. Although this passive learning approach is utilised within most educational establishments, where learners acquire knowledge, constructivists argue that learners take a more participatory role in their learning and there is scope that each learner will have a differing perception of a learning experience and draw upon their own interpretation of the knowledge presented to them. Unlike the behaviourist approach where the teacher is the knowledge base, the constructivist theory places the learner at the focus of a more meaningful learning experience (Driscoll, 1994). The constructivist approach lends itself to the teaching methods applied in vocational topics. It links learners’ experience of the wider world including their vocational experience with the topics being taught. It creates opportunity for the application of learner knowledge in real life situations which allows them to build their own constructs (Petty, 2004). This approach links heavily with the humanistic approach to teaching and learning in that experiential or applied knowledge concepts foster a positive learning environment. Rodgers identified cognitive and experiential as the two types of learning. According to Rodgers, cognitive learning is meaningless and often consists of learners reciting information given; it does not rely on understanding or the application of the knowledge. Experiential learning however is closely related to vocational education in that it relies on learner’s ability to apply knowledge to situations that they have a personal interest in. In doing this, it creates opportunity for valuable learner involvement and significant learning (Beard and Wilson, 2006) In 1984, Kolb highlighted the benefits of a learning cycle developed as a result of an experience and emphasised how this not only enables knowledge transfer but it also develops skill competencies. This is particularly important in the health and social care sector as application of knowledge and vocational competency are key to the future employability of learners. The social learning theory combines elements of cognitive and behavioural learning theories. Bandura developed an approach where these two theories integrated and formed four categories of learning: observation, retention, reproduction and motivation. This learning theory relies heavily on modelling behaviours and is utilised heavily in the health and social care sector through vocational placements and induction periods where appropriate behaviour is displayed for new employees to imitate. Vocational Health and Social Care course outcomes and preparation for employment in the sector require a particular set of learner attributes and as such, teachers in this sector need to be aware of the skills set to develop appropriate to the needs of the sector and leaner. Not all learning can rely on the conditioning of learners and the cognitive approach based on constructivism argues that learning is the acquisition of not only knowledge but also skill by mental and cognitive processes. Thus learning is an active process and as teachers we need to appreciate the restraints of the assumptions of the cognitive theory of multimedia learning to assist in creating an experience which maximises the potential for learning to take place. This would include considering the auditory and visual channels, the capacity of each channel and the stages of the learning process (Mayer, 2001) Mayer (2001) highlights the importance of transferable learning and the integration of new information with prior knowledge. This is vital in the BTEC courses as the module outcomes are usually sequential and rely on the extension and application of existing knowledge Atherton (2011) however suggested that the way in which students learn is hugely defined by their motivation. The model used identifies two types of learning: deep and surface. This model associates well with the Access to HE Diploma in that most leaners are mature and have re-engaged with education purely as a stepping stone to succeed in a given career pathway. The motivation of Access learners is usually high and as Atherton (2011) suggests, intrinsic motivation of the learners will likely trigger a deep learning strategy. Although plausible, some research suggests that learning is habitual and regardless of the motivation, past experiences and approaches to learning are more likely to inform current engagement with the learning process. Discuss the key principles and concepts of assessment According to Gravell’s (2011), assessment is used to â€Å"†¦ find out if learning has taken place†. Assessment methods should be used at regular intervals throughout a lesson and informs practice, it should be used to advise future lesson planning of the same topic and subsequent lessons within the scheme of work. This is vital as if learners fail to meet the assessment; alterations need to be made to the lesson plan and scheme of work to address this before further topics can be taught. The two main forms of assessment are summative and formative. The methods used for each type of assessment and their respective aims vary. Formative assessment is usually carried out on a regular basis. It allows constructive feedback based on assessment of learner knowledge or work and acknowledges that learner’s abilities can be challenged with motivational feedback which assists in development. Summative feedback is usually a final assessment of a learner which is rigid in structure and final. Within the Health and Social Care sector, vocational education is heavily targeted towards formative assessment and tutors are encouraged by the accreditation body to provide opportunity for leaners to develop their work using formative assessment given verbally and documented on pieces of work. The assessment, accreditation and regulatory procedures placed on educational establishments impose tight restrictions on the content of teaching, expected learning outcomes, and their perception of what learning is. There are quality and validity issues surrounding assessment in every educational establishment which has a direct effect on the achievement of learners. Linked with quality assurance, standardisation and verification procedures, the consistency of tutor assessment of learning and its reliability is placed under intense scrutiny. This ensures that all learners have the same expectations placed upon them and the work produced meets the required standards to achieve the award. The concept of effective feedback in education is one which is controversial and with the best efforts, can still be misinterpreted. It is vital for teachers to be aware and have existing knowledge of appropriate feedback models which suit both learner and the programme which is being delivered (Wiggins, 2012). Feedback can be given in many forms and an awareness of the impact of these on the learner, achievement, the teacher and the college is fundamental. Feedback given to an individual may be given formally, informally, verbally, written, and be formative or summative. Learning and Assessment in Practice According to Petty (2004), there are four stages of teaching: setting aims, planning to meet the aims, delivering the session and then evaluating it. Lesson aims are usually taken from a scheme of work which is formed using the accreditation body specification. The Scheme of Work I devised was for the Research Skills Unit of the Access to HE Diploma using OCN accreditation. The OCN specification gives teachers guidelines on which aspects of the topic are required to meet the learning outcomes and the assessment methods for them. The scheme of work in place for this unit was very informal in placement and so I prepared a new version which was approved for use by my mentor. I will discuss the scheme of work including evaluation of inclusion, differentiation, embedding of key skills and actual content. I will discuss and evaluate two lesson plans from the unit and reflect on whether they produced an inclusive learning environment where there were positive outcomes of assessment of learning. The scheme of work for the research project originally lacked any activity based learning and relied upon traditional didactic approaches of tutor led presentation style lectures. Whilst this is an Access to HE course which strives to prepare leaners for experiences they may encounter in FE, being more creative with the content may provide a more valuable learning experience for learners. James and Pollard, 2006) Throughout the scheme of work there are documented sessions on 1:1 support which are used to differentiate between students The original scheme of work demonstrated poor opportunity for inclusive learning and differentiation. During the first session, I felt that the group were struggling a little with the concept of a research project and the enormity of the task ahead of them. In an attempt to make the content more accessible and less daunting, I revised the scheme of work by planning tutor led approaches, group activities, peer feedback, nominated questions and a variety of resources with links to each subsection of the scheme of work: an example of this was the use of blurb on a book to identify the concept of a summary in research. This type of planning promotes an inclusive learning environment where each learner is involved (Ashmore et al, 2010). I had planned to separate social groups to promote inclusion by encouraging integration across peer groups. This assists in learners gaining the opportunity for peer learning and developing skills around recognising and respecting diversity which is a key attribute in all health and social care sectors. To assess learning and ensure I had planned for differentiation within the group I used nominated and open questions. This allowed me to identify learners who required scaffolding whilst stretching and challenging all learners appropriate to their ability. The first lesson included in this assignment is the first session based on the introduction and overview of the unit. In this session I introduced the Word Wall ( see appendix). This was a useful tool in introducing new academic jargon which was a requirement of the learning outcomes and therefore leaners were required to utilise throughout their project. This utilised the cognitive approach as it assisted learners to guide them to relevant words, and limit individual sensory overload. As the unit has strong links to more formal academia and will almost certainly appear in most learners’ further education, it was imperative that they had a good understanding of the basic knowledge required from the start. The second lesson included in this assignment is the workshop I delivered on conducting a literature review. The original scheme of work planned for the use of a SMART board and class discussion for this lesson however this did not allow me to assess the ability of learners to conduct a literature review relating to their research topic and therefore failed to fully ddress differentiation and inclusion. My lesson plan involved tutor led starter activity where a recap of the literature review would occur and nominated questions to assess learners understanding of the variety of techniques used to narrow down their results and identify research which was of use to them. I had prepared a print out of the power point which I was unable to present due to the room restrictions: the learning resource centre is a quiet zone and so no formal presentation of the information was appropriate. To accompany this, the learners were given a step by step guide of performing a literature review with an example to follow for those who required assistance (appendix). Throughout this lesson I embedded the use of ICT and literacy skills in the form of communication, writing and reading to ensure I was supporting the development of functional skills which are extremely important. Formative assessment, verbally and documented, was used throughout both lessons to support learning and create opportunity for learners to develop their work prior to summative assessment. Methods of assessment relevant to your specialist subject area For this section I will be using examples from practice that I have been involved in: the OCN Access to HE Diploma and Edexcel BTEC Level 3 Diploma. The original scheme of work for this OCN unit was heavily based around the accreditation requirements and in doing so, was primarily focused on summative assessment. Learners were not often given the opportunity of formative assessment however this has been identified by both the learners and I as a potential learning opportunity which is being missed. Formative assessment would allow learners to reflect on and action their feedback which would enable targeted performance improvement. This would assist in the learning process for the learner and possibly also be reflected in improved achievement in summative assessment. When compiling the new scheme of work, this was considered throughout and opportunities for formative assessment and informal feedback were embedded to improve learner’s ability to build on their strengths and learn from continuous feedback rather than rely purely on summative feedback. The Access course design lends itself to summative assessment however learners on this course are often placed under increasing pressure to gain Distinction mark criteria by Higher Education establishments. Given most learners on the course are returning to education after work/life experience, it is unusual that a learner would achieve a Distinction grade especially on the first few modules. Increasing formative assessment in the first term of the course would potentially enable greater differentiation of learning and opportunity for this to be a realistic possibility. The course design of the BTEC differs greatly from the Access to HE in terms of assessment. It is widely accepted that the BTEC learners have multiple opportunity to gain formative assessment and that summative assessment of learning almost merges into formative when required: a final submission of work can be referred back to the learner with feedback which will highlight areas the learner needs to address to meet the criteria. There are possible issues with the reliability and transferability of the award. BTEC in nature is modular with each unit have a set of outcomes achievable by gaining the pass criteria and for those able, the merit and distinction criteria also. Most of the work is coursework related with few incidences of presentations, this combined with multiple attempts at achieving the outcome criteria and some FE institutions teaching purely to assessment criteria rather than teaching to enable application of knowledge/skills in the sector could possibly lead to learners achieving the award without having developed the necessary knowledge and skills as relied upon in the sector. Conclusion I feel this module has provided me with an overview of delivery and learner expectations within the education sector. Not only have I been able to gain valuable experience in delivery of programmes, I have also been introduced into the complexities of the role of an FE teacher within a large organisation. My own attributes as a trainee teacher and desire to improve the learning experiences of those I deliver to have been met with some conflict within an institution environment where values, attitudes toward the learning process and increasing learner involvement are not shared. This has provided me with an opportunity to reflect on my own values and consider my future employment options. The scheme of work, lessons planned and lesson delivery within the placement has extended my knowledge and skills of effective learning within the classroom environment and how implementing theory affects the learning opportunities and achievements of the learners. I hope to continue developing these links throughout the course to inform a more effective delivery of learning and a higher standard of teaching.

London 2012: Did the Olympics benefit all, or leave a legacy of widening social inequality?

The Olympic Games have become a much sort after event by cities around the world. It is seen as an opportunity for the city not only to enhance and broaden its profile, but showcase its potential as an attractive place for investment (Hiller, 2006, p.318). This essay will explore the sociological impact that the Olympics have had on the city of London and its occupants. It will be argued that while there are numerous positive short term effects that come with hosting the Olympics, not only are the positive long term effects few and far between, but there is a number of negative effects impacting those belonging to the lower socio-economic group.By examining what has occurred in London and comparing this particular Olympics to some past cities that have played host (Barcelona, Sydney, Athens etc), this essay will show that while stimulating economic growth, contributing to the short term happiness of the inhabitants and more recently, promoting environmental sustainability, the Olympi cs generally bring few benefits for socially excluded groups. Firstly, by looking at the history of the five London borough’s to be transformed by the Olympics, we will examine whether class theory is still a relevant issue for London and if Marx and Webber’s ideas are still applicable.The argument will then be divided into economic, social, cultural and political spheres, with each being discussed in terms how they were affected by hosting the Olympics in London. The Olympics may be of only short duration; however its impact and meaning may exist far beyond the event itself for the host city (Hiller, 2000, p.440). The most visible of these impacts relates to the infrastructural improvements. All host cities carry out extensive regeneration of urban areas and in London most of this â€Å"clean up and reorientation of city spaces† occurred in the  five East London Olympic host boroughs of Newham, Tower Hamlets, Hackney, Waltham Forest and Greenwich. (LERI, 2007 , p. 5).Traditionally, East London has been the heart of manufacturing and industrial work; it has been home to London’s working classes and has remained relatively poor compared to the rest of the city. In the last decade improvements in infrastructure and the regeneration of London’s docklands has seen the boroughs become socially polarised with small pockets of relative affluence surrounded by the still high concentration of relative poverty. The present day London is vastly different to Marx’s 19th century version, yet the re-emergence of class as a defining factor has seen a new generation of those once again being influenced by his writing and evolutionary vision.Marx believed that class is best understood in terms of economic factors; his theoretical model is of a two class structure of owners and non-owners (Habibis & Walter, 2009, p. 18). Today’s London is not that different, austerity measures and rising unemployment have deepened the gulf divid ing the haves and the have nots. In the New York Times, an article by Katrin Bennhold (2012, April 26) states More than a third of British land is still in aristocratic hands, according to a 2010 ownership survey by Country Life magazine.In the Conservative-Liberal Democrat coalition cabinet, 15 of the 23 ministers went to Oxford or Cambridge. With this in mind, Webber’s multidimensional model of inequality and his argument that it is power rather than class that ultimately determines the distribution of resources in society (Habibis & Walter, 2009, p.19) can be used to explain how London is currently being governed. Webber placed much emphasis on the market and in doing so was able to account for the importance of non-material resources, such as education and skills. Most of those living in the East London in the lead up to the Olympics were young, lacking a proper education or skill base and therefore had little or no relationship to the market, and so, no power.Like Webber , Bourdieu also believed that non-economic factors were important as sources of social power (Habibas & Walter, 2009, p. 50). He would have made much of the fact that, of London’s elite and those who currently hold power, most attended the same prestigious private schools, therefore creating â€Å"social and cultural capital† to use as a resource that few in the eastern boroughs could even dream of. In the lead up to the London 2012 Olympics the world was confronted with what has become known now as the  Global Financial Crisis (GFC). This economic depression led to an increase in unemployment and poverty throughout the world, particularly in the case of those already belonging to socially excluded groups.Social exclusion relates not only to economic disadvantage but includes the exclusion of people or groups from participation in mainstream social and economic life (Habibis and Walter 2009, p.78). The impact of the GFC was reported as leaving a whole generation of y oung people with opportunities that don’t live up to their aspirations, to the point where they may abandon hope for the future at all. The crisis means they almost invariably face fewer and less well paid entry-level jobs at every level, from graduate openings to factory work (Apps, 2011).This unrest led to the London riots only 12 months before the city was to host the Olympics. London’s Olympic bid was promoted as being aimed directly at developing an extensive renewal process to address the social and economic problems faced by those living in the eastern boroughs (LERI, 2007, p. 5). In economic terms, the infrastructural developments and large building projects are important because of their ability to attract investment and increase employment opportunities. For London, the games related construction activity is estimated to support a  £13.5 billion contribution to the UK GDP and the equivalent of 267, 000 years of employment in the UK economy between 2005 and 2017 (Oxford Economics, 2012, p.2).However, national figures from December 2012 show a decline of 25 000 construction jobs during the year (Moulds, 2012). In the lead up to the Athens Olympics in 2004, employment went up by 7%, however once the games were over Greek industry lost 70 000 jobs, mainly in construction (LERI, 2007, p.55). The economic benefits from the flagship developments and major projects are supposed to filter down to all groups over time, yet for socially excluded groups, there are often no benefits. Instead, the impacts are often negative, with house prices rising and the cost of living increasing. â€Å"Those who benefit are the existing asset holders and affluent middle class† (Ryan-Collins & Jackson, 2008, p.4). The social and cultural impacts of hosting the Olympics have in the past been more about the ‘feel good’ aspects of the games (Smith, 2009, p.117), than any particular form of social sustainability.Past Olympic host cities, particul arly Atlanta, Athens and Sydney, have attempted to use the games as an opportunity for long-term social legacies. However research suggests that  Sydney was the only city where a legacy for a socially excluded group (the Homelessness Protocol) was lasting (Minnaert, 2011, p.370). For East London, three important changes have taken place since the Olympics. Firstly, transport services to the area, especially Stratford have been dramatically improved. Secondly, in order to compete with the huge new Westfield shopping centre, the local Stratford shopping centre was given a makeover, yet is still providing cheap, affordable goods for low income families.And finally, local schools have benefitted to the extent that they have lifted their performance from very poor to be able to compete with the national levels (Power, 2012). Minnaert (2011, p.363) has recognised three growing Olympic legacies for socially excluded groups; skills/volunteering, employment, and sports participation. The O lympics has been acknowledged as providing volunteering programmes that improve skills and employability, yet Hiller (2006, p.320) highlights that the model for the Olympic volunteer is best suited to primarily white collar workers.The vast majority of London’s unemployed are young, with a poor education and little skill base. As pointed out by Habibis and Walter (2009, p. 134) ours is a knowledge based society and those who possess the knowledge and skills (the highly educated) are the ones who gain access to the rewards. The same issue applies when reviewing the idea of increased employment opportunities for the host city population. Whilst it is abundantly obvious that yes, there are more jobs, most are not evenly distributed; employment opportunities usually benefit those who already have the skills and education required to seek and obtain work, with or without, these increased opportunities (Minneart, 2011, p. 363).The economic impact of the London 2012 Olympic and Para lympic games (2012, p.32) states that 3000 previously unemployed workers (70% of them from the host boroughs) were employed in the construction of the Olympic Park and Athletes village, yet these jobs are unlikely to be permanent as research into the legacies of the Barcelona and Athens Olympics suggests that job creation tends to be temporary, often filled by migrant and transient workers, with little or no change in overall employment rates (East Thames Group, 2007 p.4).One of London’s promises during the bidding for the 2012 Olympic games was to inspire a new generation to take up sport (DCMS, 2012, p.3). In the past  the Olympics has been linked to increased participation in sport (Minnaert, 2011, p.363), yet there is little to suggest that these new participants are from any socially excluded groups. Although money, or lack of it, may play a part in this, another inhibiting factor is that sport involvement is also linked to cultural capital (Minnaert, 2011, p.363). Bou rdieu used cultural capital to refer to a form of value associated with consumption patterns, lifestyle choices, social attributes and formal qualifications (Habibis & Walter, 2009, p. 48). It is comparable to other resources like economic capital in that it not only impacts lifestyles but also life chances.Bourdieu believed cultural capital could be converted to economic capital through education. By sending their children to expensive private schools, working class parents can purchase the cultural power needed to move into middle class jobs (Habibis & Walter, 2009, p.109). It is still too early to tell whether London has succeeded in getting more people to take up a sport, but evidence suggests that in the past the Olympics has failed to show sustained participation once it is over (Minnaert, 2011, p. 363).Those who make the decisions in London today hail not from backgrounds that anyone in East London could possibly relate to. The current UK conservative-liberal coalition govern ment is comprised mainly of the affluent, privately educated, upper class. They and the global business leaders of the world were the decision makers for the London Olympics and decided how London was to be changed and regenerated. Western nations are currently seeing a rising influence of neoliberal discourses where the shift to a market influenced distribution has taken the place of a state related redistribution (Habibis & Walter, 2009, p.105).Indeed the London Olympics has even been called the Neoliberal games (Renton, 2012). Renton (2012) argues that with all the corporate sponsorship from entities such as BP, McDonalds, and Rio Tinto, the 2012 Olympic games are a reflection of the injustices and inequalities of the current economic system.One of the five government promises of the Olympic legacy was to demonstrate that the UK is a creative, inclusive and welcoming place to live in, visit and for business (LERI, 2009, p.6). Yet in the lead up to the games, there was suggestions of ‘social cleansing’ occurring as councils attempted to  relocate those claiming the housing benefit to areas outside the city (Bowater, 2012). There is also still debate over whether the Olympic legacy of affordable housing will eventuate. Affordable housing was also meant to be one of the legacies of the London Olympics, yet with the recent cap on the housing benefit, many are doubtful that those with low income will be able to remain in the regenerated areas (Moore, 2012).In conclusion, it is noted that while hosting the Olympics boosts a cities international profile, particularly regarding investment and tourism it does not benefit all. While some improvements have been seen in the host boroughs like better school performances, more hopefulness and resilience, the increasing global financial strain is causing cuts to funding and resources that may now turn the clock back and leave these areas even worse off than they were before the Olympics. The lasting legacy could be that with the local sporting facilities removed to make way for the large Olympic complexes, many will no longer be able to afford to use them.With class still playing such an important role in determining life chances, particularly in London, the need to build a social system where education and skills acquisition are genuinely based on meritocratic principals rather than class hierarchy is the only way that inequality can be reduced. The Olympics has always been based on such meritocratic principals and it is the socially responsibility of those in power to see that as so much public investment is spent on financing such a large event, that it can only be justified if all benefit by being completely socially inclusive.